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Digital Rights in the Gulf Monitoring surveillance. Defending freedoms.

الحقوق الرقمية في الخليج مكافحة التجسس، والدفاع عن الحريات

Tag: Freedom of Expression

Qatar Amends Cybercrime Law

This month, Qatari officials approved an amendment to the controversial cybercrimes law. The amendment bans the circulation of images or videos of individuals online without their given consent. Officials tout the amendment as a step forward for privacy within the country, but the amendment is rife for abuse and may threaten freedom of expression and journalism within Qatar.

The punishment for violating the new amendment is one year of prison and/or 100,000 Qatar Riyals (roughly 23,500 Euros). A surface-level analysis of the fine amount may lead one to believe that this amount is tough but fair based on economic measurements such as GDP per capita; where Qataris are amongst the top earners in the world. These economic measures do not tell the full story of the average person in Qatar. The Qatari government heavily subsidizes its nationals through a litany of programs, but most people living in Qatar aren’t Qatari nationals. Rather they are migrant workers. Most estimates say that 90% of the population of Qatar are migrant workers. This means that wealth is not evenly distributed in the country. Furthermore, Qatari officials rarely, if ever, publish data on poverty rates and some estimates suggest that Qatar is an extremely unequal country. Thus wealth is concentrated in the hands of the country’s richest. The 100,000 Qatar Riyal fine is an astronomical amount that most Qataris can’t afford and most of the migrant workers couldn’t fathom paying that much money.

The new amendment does not only threaten the financial stability of those found to be in violation of the Cybercrime Law, but it also threatens press freedoms within Qatar. The newest amendment, much like the Cybercrime Law overall, is overreaching and vague. Journalists in the country already self-censor their own reports in an effort to stay clear of angering authorities, but the newest amendment makes photojournalism and broadcast journalism almost impossible. Rarely do those who violate the rights of others ever consent to having journalists record them in the act. Thus, photojournalism and broadcast journalism is reduced to a lesser version of itself that is only possible in private, preapproved, and curated places chosen by authorities.

These restrictions apply to the average citizen of Qatar too. The vagueness and broad nature of the amendment may make it difficult for Qataris to record abuses by authorities. The ability to record and document police conduct is important. The ability to distribute these events online is important as well. Under the new amendment, this is now impossible.

In Qatar’s attempts to protect privacy in public places through the new amendment, authorities may have introduced a new tool of oppression. Journalists now have to be extremely careful in the way they photograph and record any story that takes place in public spaces. Qatari citizens have now lost the only means of documenting abuse by authorities in public spaces. Qatari officials must immediately tighten the language used in both the amendment and the overall Cybercrime law. As it exists now, the law only offers ways for authorities to violate the spirit of the law to punish those who would criticize officials or dissent.

2025-09-04
An Introduction to The Role of Big Tech in Digital Oppression: Are Companies Complicit?

In the Gulf region, the relationship between state interests and Big Tech operations has raised significant concerns amongst human rights organisations and activists about the suppression of independent journalism and the control of dissenting narratives. Particularly during the Arab Spring, social media firms such as Facebook and X (Twitter) have long sought to present themselves as the front-runner of revolutionary movements. Despite this, as Tunisian writer and critic Haythem Guesmi has pointed out, though, it is more appropriate to say they have been vital in the counter-revolutions. In fact, Eight of the top ten largest firms in the world by market capitalization in 2023 are tech corporations, including Apple, Microsoft, Meta, Google, and Amazon (the so-called Big Five). To this end, as distinguished by Mike Hynes, these digital companies are “more powerful than most countries on the planet” because of their immense wealth, global presence, and position in international marketplaces.

In the digital sphere, governments have systematically employed surveillance tools, censorship, and legal frameworks to create environments hostile to dissent and journalistic freedom. However, how complicit are Big Tech companies in facilitating these oppressive measures?

Surveillance Technologies:

Gulf states have made significant investments in advanced surveillance technologies, often sourced from private companies, to monitor and suppress dissent. One of the most notorious tools in this effort that has been frequently mentioned on our website is the Pegasus spyware, developed by the Israeli firm NSO Group. Both Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have reportedly deployed Pegasus to target activists, journalists, and critics, including the late Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi and his family . The developer of the powerful Pegasus spyware was found liable on Friday for its role in the infection of devices belonging to 1,400 WhatsApp users, including journalists, human rights activists, political dissidents, diplomats, and senior foreign government officials further demonstrating the complicity of major tech firms in enabling digital repression. A particularly harrowing example can be seen in a 2022 investigation that revealed how NSO Group’s notorious Pegasus spyware was used to infect the devices of three activists in Bahrain, demonstrating yet again the grave threat which Pegasus poses to critics of repressive governments.

Surveillance tools grant authorities access to calls, messages, contacts, and even microphones, making it nearly impossible for journalists and activists to protect their sources. This level of intrusion not only violates fundamental privacy rights but also exposes individuals to severe consequences, including legal prosecution, harassment, arrest, and coordinated defamation campaigns aimed at silencing critical voices.

Censorship on Digital Platforms:

Digital repression is centered around this relationship between governments and these companies. Without these big tech companies selling their products to governments. In recent years Big Tech companies have become a driving force for information dissemination, with political dissemination spreading like wildfire across these platforms. However, there have been reported instances from activists and Human Rights advocates that Big tech companies have worked in tangent with governments to censor and target those who share critical opinions of the Gulf regimes online.

For example, X has faced significant criticism for its interactions with authoritarian governments. Firstly, governments in the Gulf, notably Saudi Arabia and the UAE, have been reported to manipulate X’s algorithms and trending topics to suppress opposition voices. Evidence of this has been seen through State-sponsored “troll farms” which have been used to flood the platform with propaganda and disinformation, effectively drowning out genuine activist content. Additionally, the same study highlights that activists have reported X’s compliance with governmental requests to suspend or shadow-ban dissidents, thereby limiting their reach or removing their accounts entirely. In 2019, two former Twitter employees were convicted of spying for the Saudi government, accessing private data of Saudi dissidents through the platform. This incident further highlights the vulnerability of user data and the potential for internal exploitation within tech companies. From a financial perspective, the Big Tech’s deep ties to Gulf states, such as Saudi Arabia’s investment in Elon Musk’s new AI venture (Xai), which is a subsidiary of X, raise concerns about political influence over content moderation. Ultimately, these companies enable digital repression by complying with censorship demands, failing to protect user data, and allowing state-backed disinformation to thrive.

The Role of Big Tech and a Call for Transparency

These practices are deeply concerning as they illustrate how platforms designed to facilitate free expression can be co-opted by authoritarian regimes to monitor, suppress, and punish dissent. Big Tech’s complicity in digital repression is not just passive—it is often an active engagement driven by financial interests, weak data protections, and a lack of accountability. To clarify further, Big Tech becomes a weapon for these regimes by partnering with them or caving in to official demands, influencing international debate and advancing digital authoritarianism. The partnership creates a digital environment where the right to free speech is compromised and the internet turns into a tool for governmental control. Without increased transparency, accountability, and regulatory oversight, the power of Big Tech may continue to strengthen digital authoritarianism efforts, particularly in regions like the Gulf where freedom of expression is already under significant threat. To safeguard freedom of expression, it is imperative for international stakeholders to hold both governments and technology companies accountable, ensuring that digital tools are used to empower rather than oppress.

2025-02-17
Nabeel Rajab: A Case Study of Digital Repression in Bahrain

Nabeel Rajab, one of Bahrain’s most prominent human rights defenders, exemplifies how cyber surveillance is used by the Bahraini government to target and silence activists. His case highlights the ongoing harm inflicted on civilians and activists by the regime. Rajab’s activism has consistently focused on condemning human rights violations both domestically and internationally. His outspoken criticism of the Bahraini government’s involvement in the Yemen conflict and its human rights abuses has made him a prime target for authorities.

In 2016, Rajab was arrested for tweets criticizing Bahrain’s involvement in the Yemen war and exposing the regime’s abuses. These tweets were dismissed as “false news” and “insults to a foreign country,” resulting in a five-year prison sentence in 2018; clear evidence of the state’s aggressive crackdown on digital dissent. What makes Rajab’s case particularly significant is the government’s use of his social media activity as direct evidence in legal proceedings. In a troubling trend, digital platforms have become tools for the state to monitor, track, and punish critics. Rajab’s tweets, which aimed to spotlight critical issues, were weaponized to justify his conviction and lengthy imprisonment.

While his release in 2020 marked a positive step toward political freedom in Bahrain, human rights activists still face significant challenges. Released under “alternative sentencing,” Rajab remains under surveillance, and his freedom of movement and speech is heavily restricted. His case is not an isolated one; a growing number of activists in Bahrain face legal persecution and imprisonment for their online activities. The regime’s response to digital dissent is not merely punitive but strategically aimed at deterring others from using digital platforms to criticize the government. The state’s use of surveillance technologies to monitor online speech has created a chilling effect, discouraging free expression and promoting self-censorship among activists and the broader public. These actions undermine basic human rights, including freedom of speech, privacy, and the right to freely exchange ideas.

Furthermore, The 2024 Freedom House report ranked Bahrain as “Not Free,” with a score of 12/100, citing severe limitations on civil liberties and political rights. Despite the evidence, the international community’s response has been mixed. Some human rights organizations have called for greater accountability, while tech companies face criticism for enabling digital repression.

The struggles of activists, however, have not been in vain. In 2024, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa of Bahrain granted amnesty to more than 800 individuals wrongfully imprisoned for peacefully exercising their right to free speech and political dissent. Nonetheless, political figures and human rights advocates such as Hassan Mushaima, Sheikh Ali Salman, Dr. Abduljalil al-Singace, and Abdulhadi al-Khawaja remain arbitrarily detained. Additionally, the death sentences of 26 individuals on death row have not been commuted by the Bahraini government.

Rajab’s case highlights the dangers of digital repression, not only for the individuals directly targeted but for the broader landscape of activism and independent journalism in Bahrain. As long as these practices persist, Bahrain’s government will continue to undermine the fundamental rights of its citizens and stifle the voices of those who seek accountability and change.

DR4G urges the government to take accountability and protect the rights of its citizens. Tech companies must also be held accountable for safeguarding the online spaces they provide, ensuring they are not complicit in the suppression of human rights. Furthermore, governments and international organizations must take decisive action to hold perpetrators of digital violence accountable and protect those who dare to speak truth to power.

2025-01-23
Digital Threats to Bahraini Journalists: A Systematic Assault on Press Freedom
Bahrain’s government has systematically weaponized digital technology to suppress independent journalism and control narratives critical of the regime. Through pervasive surveillance, censorship, and legal harassment, Bahraini authorities have created a hostile environment for journalists, targeting them with spyware and punitive laws to undermine their work and silence dissenting voices.

Spyware such as Pegasus and FinFisher has been instrumental in this assault. These tools infiltrate journalists’ devices, granting authorities access to their calls, messages, contacts, and microphones. In 2014, FinFisher spyware was deployed to monitor the private communications of Bahraini journalists and activists, exposing them to legal and professional risks. Citizen Lab has further documented the use of Pegasus spyware on at least a dozen Bahraini activists and journalists since 2020. Such invasive surveillance compromises journalists’ ability to protect their sources, deepening systemic repression and exposing them to harassment, arrest, and public defamation.

Bahraini authorities have systematically discredited and detained journalists to suppress independent reporting. Abduljalil Al-Singace, a human rights defender and blogger, has been imprisoned since 2011, serving a life sentence on charges of “plotting to overthrow the government,” highlighting the regime’s intolerance for investigative and critical journalism. Nabeel Rajab, another prominent journalist and activist, was arrested in 2012 for “insulting a statutory body” on Twitter, and although released in 2020, his case exemplifies the state’s criminalization of online dissent to silence influential voices. Similarly, Ali Mearaj and Hassan Qambar, detained in 2016 and 2018 for reporting on political unrest, remain excluded from recent amnesty efforts, further reflecting the selective and repressive nature of the regime’s policies.

Bahrain’s legal framework reinforces its control over journalists. The 2014 Cybercrime Law criminalizes vague offenses such as spreading “false news” or “insulting state institutions,” enabling authorities to prosecute journalists arbitrarily. The penal code further punishes perceived offenses against the king or the government’s policies, silencing dissent and censoring online content.

State-controlled internet providers block websites critical of the regime, and during periods of unrest, authorities impose internet shutdowns to stifle the dissemination of information. These measures ensure that independent journalism and online activism are either suppressed or forced into self-censorship.

In 2021, the Bahrain Press Association documented 49 media freedom violations, including the arrest, harassment, and surveillance of journalists. These cases illustrate the extent of the government’s efforts to dismantle independent journalism. Journalists are frequently labeled as threats to national security, facing professional ostracization and reputational harm in addition to legal persecution.

The Bahraini government’s reliance on digital surveillance has exacerbated the challenges faced by journalists. Tools like spyware not only compromise their professional work but also invade their personal lives, creating a pervasive sense of insecurity. The fear of being monitored curtails journalists’ ability to report freely, isolates them from sources, and fosters distrust within journalistic networks. This hyper-surveillance, combined with societal pressures, discourages many from pursuing critical reporting, leading to a chilling effect on press freedom.

The international community must pressure Bahrain to adhere to its human rights obligations, including commitments to press freedom and privacy protections. As digital tools evolve, it is imperative to establish robust legal frameworks and oversight mechanisms to prevent the misuse of technology against journalists. Safeguarding independent journalism in Bahrain is essential to fostering transparency, accountability, and the fundamental right to freedom of expression. ADHRB calls for urgent reforms:
- End the use of spyware to monitor journalists and uphold their right to privacy.
- Amend vague and repressive laws, including the 2014 Cybercrime Law, to protect freedom of expression.
- Release journalists and activists imprisoned for their work and opinions.
- Establish safeguards to prevent surveillance and ensure the safety of journalists and their sources.
2025-01-07
Bahrain’s Internet Censorship and Its Impact on Freedom of Expression

Bahrain’s internet censorship has become a critical tool for the government in maintaining control over its citizens and repressing dissent. With increasing reliance on digital technology, the Bahraini authorities have implemented pervasive mass surveillance, content blocking, propaganda, and online monitoring to restrict freedom of expression and control individuals.

Amnesty International reports that spyware and tracking tools are used to target individuals for harassment, deepening power imbalances and eroding personal freedoms. Bahraini authorities deploy spyware to monitor the personal communications of activists, journalists, and opposition figures. In 2014, the government used the malicious FinFisher software to track the emails and WhatsApp messages of prominent Bahraini human rights defenders and researchers from Citizen Lab have detected Pegasus spyware on the devices of at least a dozen Bahraini activists since 2020.

The government’s efforts to suppress online criticism are justified through vague laws, such as the 2014 Cybercrime Law, which criminalizes actions perceived as anti-government or critical of the ruling regime and it consequently allows the government to censor critical content and prosecute human rights defenders. Also, the penal code includes various punishments for offenses such as insulting the king or state institutions, contradicting the government’s policies and spreading false news including on social media.

Some notable examples include the human rights defender and blogger Abduljalil Al-Singace who has been arbitrarily detained since 2011 after being sentenced to life in prison on charges of “plotting to overthrow the government” and another prominent HRD, Nabeel Rajab, who was charged for insulting a statutory body on Twitter in 2012 and released in 2020.

Additionally, Bahrain’s state-controlled internet providers are empowered to block content critical of the government, and during times of political unrest, this can result in complete internet shutdowns, suppressing dissent.

In such an environment, news outlets, media, and digital activism are also under government control or operate self-censorship. In 2021, the Bahrain Press Association documented 49 media freedom violations, including arrests of journalists and activists for their cyber activities. Ali Mearaj and Hassan Qambar, respectively arrested in 2016 and 2018 have been excluded from the recent releases.

Following the COVID-19 pandemic Bahrain has quickly adopted tracking systems that raised concerns about privacy. One example is the “BeAware Bahrain” app, which was launched by the authorities to curb the spread of the virus by tracing contacts and capturing location data but also posed significant threats to privacy and security, potentially normalizing surveillance tools that could later be used for invasive governmental control.

As the government continues to violate fundamental rights like freedom of speech and privacy under the guise of cybercrime prevention and counter-terrorism, citizens, journalists, and activists struggle to freely voice their views online. ADHRB calls on Bahrain to stop the digital authoritarianism which resulted in serious human rights violations and arbitrary detentions of critics. The government must amend the vague and overly broad cybercrime laws imposed to silence the right to freedom of expression. Also, ADHRB urges Bahraini authorities to immediately and unconditionally release all the individuals imprisoned for expressing their opinions and uphold its human rights obligations.

WRITTEN BY ADHRB INTERN

2025-01-03