As Gulf states deploy increasingly sophisticated tools of digital control, ranging from surveillance spyware to content censorship, the diaspora has become a vital voice in the global movement for digital rights. Detached from many of the immediate risks faced by dissidents inside the region, Gulf diaspora communities have used their transnational positions to spotlight abuses, challenge authoritarian narratives, and push for international accountability.
Who Makes Up the Gulf Diaspora?
The Gulf diaspora consists of exiled activists, political dissidents, journalists, academics, students, and ordinary citizens who fled their home countries due to persecution, legal threats, or shrinking civic space. Many reside in Europe, North America, and Southeast Asia, where they benefit from stronger protections for freedom of expression and digital security. Others are part of longstanding migrant communities shaped by generational exile, statelessness (such as the Bidun community), or sectarian marginalization, particularly among Shia populations in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia.
For many, exile is not just a personal safety strategy; it becomes a political position. Their lived experience of repression fuels a commitment to advocacy, transparency, and reform. These communities form online networks, NGOs, think tanks, and media platforms to document digital rights violations and engage international audiences.
Digital Activism Beyond Borders
While the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) affirms freedom of expression and the right to privacy, these rights are routinely violated in the Gulf. Governments use broadly defined cybercrime laws to criminalize dissent and silence critics. For example, the United Arab Emirates’ Cybercrime Law (Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021) penalizes online content that “harms the reputation of the state,” a vague standard frequently used to imprison activists and journalists.
Diaspora advocates, operating beyond these borders, become the last line of free expression for many back home. Whether through long-form investigative journalism, Twitter threads, Instagram reels, or encrypted messaging apps, they work to document abuses and preserve the voices of those silenced inside the region.
Organizations such as ALQST for Human Rights, founded by Saudi dissidents in exile, regularly publish reports on arrests, censorship, and surveillance. The Gulf Centre for Human Rights (GCHR) brings together activists from across the region to coordinate advocacy campaigns, train digital defenders, and engage international institutions.
Case in Point: The Surveillance of Jamal Khashoggi
An alarming case that we have previously mentioned throughout our research into the internet risks experienced by Gulf diaspora members was the murder of journalist Jamal Khashoggi, who was a U.S. resident. Investigations revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to surveil people close to him, including his fiancée and fellow dissidents. Citizen Lab and Amnesty International later confirmed that Gulf governments used this tool to target journalists, lawyers, and human rights defenders living in exile.
This kind of transnational digital authoritarianism; where regimes export repression via digital tools is an increasingly common tactic. In addition, a 2022 Freedom House report found that Gulf countries are among the most active in digitally targeting their diasporas abroad, including through online harassment, hacking, spyware, and threats to family members.
How the Diaspora Organizes and Mobilizes
Despite these threats, the Gulf diaspora has grown into a well-networked digital advocacy ecosystem:
- Independent Media: Outlets like MENA Rights Group, Lualua TV, and Daraj amplify the perspectives of exiled journalists and whistleblowers.
- Legal Advocacy: Groups such as BIRD (Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy) conduct strategic litigation and file complaints with UN bodies and European courts against spyware vendors and abusive states.
- Online Campaigns: Diaspora-led initiatives such as #FreeAhmedMansoor, #JusticeForKhashoggi, and campaigns against arms exports to Gulf states have gained global traction on social media.
- Academic Engagement: Exiled scholars collaborate with universities and think tanks to produce policy research, op-eds, and panel discussions on digital repression in the Gulf.
The diaspora’s ability to speak truth to power, without facing immediate imprisonment, makes them indispensable to the global digital rights movement.
Challenges and Opportunities
Despite their resilience, diaspora activists continue to face significant risks. Many experience digital harassment, phishing attacks, or surveillance attempts. Others are doxxed or defamed by state-aligned media. Some report coercion or retaliation against relatives still living in the Gulf.
Yet their advocacy has already led to tangible outcomes. In 2022, the European Parliament called for a ban on spyware exports like Pegasus, citing the targeting of Gulf diaspora members. UN experts have urged stronger controls on the surveillance industry and condemned spying on human rights defenders.
To better support the diaspora’s advocacy, the international community must strengthen legal protections for exiled human rights defenders and create mechanisms to hold both states and private actors accountable. This includes:
- Expanding the scope of international agreements like the Budapest Convention to include safeguards against state-sponsored cyber repression;
- Establishing international export controls on spyware, modeled on the Wassenaar Arrangement;
- Providing digital security training and legal assistance to diaspora activists targeted by transnational threats.
The diaspora’s role is not just reactive but visionary. By preserving spaces for free expression, exposing abuses, and pushing for reform, they are helping to shape a digital future rooted in transparency and human dignity. As digital authoritarianism becomes increasingly transnational, the resistance to it must also transcend borders. The Gulf diaspora stands at the frontline of this struggle, offering a blueprint for collective action and international solidarity.
